Microsoft CRM is new player on the CRM software market. The whole conception behind CRM seems to be different. In case of traditional CRM software (Siebel, Oracle) - the application was designed with platform independence in mind. Microsoft CRM is dedicated to Microsoft technology and so deploys all the Microsoft tools: Windows Active Directory, Microsoft Exchange 2003/2000, SQL Server, Crystal Reports Enterprise, Biztalk server, Microsoft Outlook, Internet Explorer, Microsoft Great Plains as backend, etc.
If you are software developer, database administrator or web designer who is asked: how do we customize Microsoft CRM - we are giving you directions in this article.Microsoft CRM SDK - this is software development kit with C# and partly VB.net code samples - it is supported by Microsoft Business Solutions technical support. It is based on web service calls, if you are C# .NET developer - you are excellently positioned to do this type of customizations. This is the preferred modification scenario and this should be easily upgradeable customization. VB.Net examples will be available soon.
Legacy SQL Data integration. This is also easy and safe. If you have SQL database, sitting on the same or linked SQL Server - you can create ASPX .Net application and simply integrate it into CRM. You can place it on the navigation bar or menu in isv.config - please refer to MS CRM SDK
Legacy ASP integration - this is somewhat more sophisticated. You have to deploy HTTP handler to be a middle party between CRM which is .Net based and ASP which is legacy IIS. The trick is - you have to have INI file with security settings to penetrate into MS CRM with proper credentials, calling web service.
Microsoft Exchange Programming. Microsoft CRM has Exchange connector - which moves CRM incoming email to MS if it has GUID in its subject. You can alter this logic (for instance - move email to CRM if it doesn't have GUID but it is from the sender who is contact or account in MS CRM). Refer to MS Exchange SDK onsyncsave event handling. Then simply apply some MS CRM SDK programming - you need some COM+ objects creation and VB programming experience.
Direct SQL touch - in #4 above I described you the scenario with MS Exchange handlers - this would be ideal world if MS CRM SDK does the job. But - in real world this is not always true - you have to do direct flags correction in CRM database (like making Activity closed, moving email attachments/octet streams, etc). This is not supported by MBS technical support - but you can rescue to this technique if you have to get job done.
MS CRM Customization tool - this is rather end-user tool and we don't describe it here - read the manual. We've described above the options to use when this tool doesn't do the job
Crystal Reports - feel free to create Crystal report - tables and views structure is self explanatory. Try to avoid the temptation to create your own SQL view or stored procedure in MS CRM database, instead - create custom database and place your view and stored proc in it.
Happy modifying! If you want us to do the job - give us a call 1-866-528-0577! help@albaspectrum.com
Andrew Karasev is Chief Technology Officer in Alba Spectrum Technologies - USA nationwide Microsoft CRM, Microsoft Great Plains customization company, based in Chicago, Boston, San Francisco, Seattle, Minneapolis, Los Angeles, Houston, Dallas, Atlanta, Miami, Canada, UK, Australia and having locations in multiple states and internationally (www.albaspectrum.com), he is Dexterity, SQL, VB/C#.Net, Crystal Reports and Microsoft CRM SDK developer.
Sunday, September 9, 2007
Top 10 Money Saving Tips for Term Life Insurance
As Life Insurance Awareness Month is coming to an end, we thought it would be appropriate to share our Top 10 Money Saving Tips for Term Life Insurance.
1. Buy when you're young
Many people may feel they don't need life insurance when they are young. While your financial needs may be lower at a younger age, the rates are also substantially cheaper when you're young. Remember, the goal is to cover your primary assets (like your salary and house) so that if something were to happen to you, your beneficiaries would be able to persevere financially. The best advice is to lock in as much protection at a young age while your health and prices are still good.
2. Your “half” birthday could be costly
While some companies raise their prices based on your actual age, most companies increase the price of their policies six months before your birthday. It's a term called “Age Nearest” in the industry, and that half-year price increase could really add up over a 20-year term policy. As above, the quicker you purchase your policy the better.
3. Select the right length of coverage
Everyone has different needs, and not one size fits all when it comes to term life insurance. While it may make sense for people in their 30s and 40s to secure a 20-year term length, a 10-year term might be more appropriate for someone nearing retirement.People who are trying to quit smoking, for example, might be best suited purchasing a shorter term (and then replacing it with a longer term policy when they qualify for non-tobacco prices). Lastly, individuals who have 30-year mortgages might want to consider a 30-year term to ensure that the house is protected throughout the period of the loan.
4. Check for price breaks
Companies often offer “price breaks” at certain coverage amounts (e.g., $250,000 vs. $225,000). The truth is that many people can actually pay less money for more coverage. Check how little your prices increase when you increase coverage to $250,000, $500,000, or $1,000,000.
5. Buy the right amount of coverage
Many agents may try to sell you more coverage than you need. The purpose of life insurance is to “indemnify” (replace financial loss), and what most people should be looking for is income replacement for their beneficiaries. Independent financial planners recommend the following rule of thumb: purchase an amount of coverage equal to 6-10 times your annual gross income.
6. The right hobby with the wrong company could cost you
People who participate in high-risk sports or activities (such as hang-gliding, skydiving, mountain climbing, scuba diving, and racing), or even those who like to have an occasional cigar could very well pay more money if they don't pick the right company. Every company looks at risk factors differently and some are more liberal in certain areas than others. Speak with a licensed insurance expert and make sure they have all the underwriting criteria at their disposal and match you with the right company.
7. Work policies aren't always the best deal
While purchasing a life insurance policy through your employer is convenient, it may not be the best deal available to you. Work policies are often based on a composite profile of the employees you work with, many of whom may be less healthy than you, or have other underwriting factors that might drive up rates. These type of policies also expire if/when you leave the company. Inexpensive term life insurance polices that cover your dependents until they can live comfortably on their own are often a better alternative.
8. Check out your payment/billing options
Many life insurance companies offer discounts to consumers who pay their premiums annually, or who pay monthly by electronic funds transfer (EFT).
9. Review your policy often
Do a review of your life insurance policy a minimum of every three years, if not more often. Rates may be lower, and your circumstances may have changed, necessitating more or less protection. If you are replacing a policy, make sure you allow enough time to get your new policy in place so coverages won't overlap or lapse.
10. Don't overspend on protection
Term life insurance is the most affordable and cost-effective pure protection available, and it is typically much less expensive than a comparable whole life policy. The old axiom still rings true: “Buy Term and invest the difference.”
1. Buy when you're young
Many people may feel they don't need life insurance when they are young. While your financial needs may be lower at a younger age, the rates are also substantially cheaper when you're young. Remember, the goal is to cover your primary assets (like your salary and house) so that if something were to happen to you, your beneficiaries would be able to persevere financially. The best advice is to lock in as much protection at a young age while your health and prices are still good.
2. Your “half” birthday could be costly
While some companies raise their prices based on your actual age, most companies increase the price of their policies six months before your birthday. It's a term called “Age Nearest” in the industry, and that half-year price increase could really add up over a 20-year term policy. As above, the quicker you purchase your policy the better.
3. Select the right length of coverage
Everyone has different needs, and not one size fits all when it comes to term life insurance. While it may make sense for people in their 30s and 40s to secure a 20-year term length, a 10-year term might be more appropriate for someone nearing retirement.People who are trying to quit smoking, for example, might be best suited purchasing a shorter term (and then replacing it with a longer term policy when they qualify for non-tobacco prices). Lastly, individuals who have 30-year mortgages might want to consider a 30-year term to ensure that the house is protected throughout the period of the loan.
4. Check for price breaks
Companies often offer “price breaks” at certain coverage amounts (e.g., $250,000 vs. $225,000). The truth is that many people can actually pay less money for more coverage. Check how little your prices increase when you increase coverage to $250,000, $500,000, or $1,000,000.
5. Buy the right amount of coverage
Many agents may try to sell you more coverage than you need. The purpose of life insurance is to “indemnify” (replace financial loss), and what most people should be looking for is income replacement for their beneficiaries. Independent financial planners recommend the following rule of thumb: purchase an amount of coverage equal to 6-10 times your annual gross income.
6. The right hobby with the wrong company could cost you
People who participate in high-risk sports or activities (such as hang-gliding, skydiving, mountain climbing, scuba diving, and racing), or even those who like to have an occasional cigar could very well pay more money if they don't pick the right company. Every company looks at risk factors differently and some are more liberal in certain areas than others. Speak with a licensed insurance expert and make sure they have all the underwriting criteria at their disposal and match you with the right company.
7. Work policies aren't always the best deal
While purchasing a life insurance policy through your employer is convenient, it may not be the best deal available to you. Work policies are often based on a composite profile of the employees you work with, many of whom may be less healthy than you, or have other underwriting factors that might drive up rates. These type of policies also expire if/when you leave the company. Inexpensive term life insurance polices that cover your dependents until they can live comfortably on their own are often a better alternative.
8. Check out your payment/billing options
Many life insurance companies offer discounts to consumers who pay their premiums annually, or who pay monthly by electronic funds transfer (EFT).
9. Review your policy often
Do a review of your life insurance policy a minimum of every three years, if not more often. Rates may be lower, and your circumstances may have changed, necessitating more or less protection. If you are replacing a policy, make sure you allow enough time to get your new policy in place so coverages won't overlap or lapse.
10. Don't overspend on protection
Term life insurance is the most affordable and cost-effective pure protection available, and it is typically much less expensive than a comparable whole life policy. The old axiom still rings true: “Buy Term and invest the difference.”
What is Loan ???
A loan is a type of debt. All material things can be lent but this article focuses exclusively on monetary loans. Like all debt instruments, a loan entails the redistribution of financial assets over time, between the lender and the borrower.
The borrower initially receives an amount of money from the lender, which they pay back, usually but not always in regular installments, to the lender. This service is generally provided at a cost, referred to as interest on the debt. A borrower may be subject to certain restrictions known as loan covenants under the terms of the loan.
Acting as a provider of loans is one of the principal tasks for financial institutions. For other institutions, issuing of debt contracts such as bonds is a typical source of funding. Bank loans and credit are one way to increase the money supply.
Legally, a loan is a contractual promise of a debtor to repay a sum of money in exchange for the promise of a creditor to give another sum of money।
Student loan articles
NextStudent is proud to offer free student loan articles covering a broad range of financial aid topics. If you use newsfeeders, feel free to add our student loan articles to your feeder and get up to date student loan articles as soon as we publish them!
Private Consolidation Loan Just Released by NextStudent
Selecting the best means of financing a college education sometimes can be a challenging experience. Many borrowers do not realize that the combination of personal savings and federal funds often does not cover all college expenses, according to NextStudent, a leading Phoenix-based education funding company. Fortunately, private consolidation loans such as the new offering by NextStudent are an excellent low-cost option for covering the funding gap and repaying student debt.
Federal Consolidation through NextStudent Simplifies Repayment of Student Loans
This time of year is rife with high school seniors deciding which colleges they will attend the following year. Additionally, many other students are awaiting the approach of July 1, 2007, the date when new rates for existing variable rate student loans may take effect.
Become Your Own College Funding Resource with NextStudent’s Scholarship Search Directory
There is no question that college costs are escalating beyond the ability to pay for even those of modest means without taking out student loans. New proposed student loan legislation is under consideration to lower interest rates but yet has not been enacted. In addition, individual schools from Ivy League universities to community colleges are implementing their own unique policies and programs to help students finance their college education so they avoid further debt.
NextStudent’s Commitment to Customer Education Seen in Student Loan Blog
The NextStudent Student Loan Blog celebrates its second anniversary this year, and with the recent political changes in Washington continually propelling the student loan industry to the forefront of political debate, its purpose as an excellent watchdog of student loan news and changes in federal student loan policy is more relevant than ever.
Students Spring into Funding College for New School Year
Now that spring break is a gently fading blip on college students’ radar, many students are prone to coast through the final weeks of the semester and forget about more serious considerations like planning for next year. High school seniors are in a different boat altogether, diligently working their way through their first Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). In their case, it is wise for students and their parents to monitor where they are in the college funding process and plan accordingly, according to NextStudent, the Phoenix-based premier education funding company.
The borrower initially receives an amount of money from the lender, which they pay back, usually but not always in regular installments, to the lender. This service is generally provided at a cost, referred to as interest on the debt. A borrower may be subject to certain restrictions known as loan covenants under the terms of the loan.
Acting as a provider of loans is one of the principal tasks for financial institutions. For other institutions, issuing of debt contracts such as bonds is a typical source of funding. Bank loans and credit are one way to increase the money supply.
Legally, a loan is a contractual promise of a debtor to repay a sum of money in exchange for the promise of a creditor to give another sum of money।
Student loan articles
NextStudent is proud to offer free student loan articles covering a broad range of financial aid topics. If you use newsfeeders, feel free to add our student loan articles to your feeder and get up to date student loan articles as soon as we publish them!
Private Consolidation Loan Just Released by NextStudent
Selecting the best means of financing a college education sometimes can be a challenging experience. Many borrowers do not realize that the combination of personal savings and federal funds often does not cover all college expenses, according to NextStudent, a leading Phoenix-based education funding company. Fortunately, private consolidation loans such as the new offering by NextStudent are an excellent low-cost option for covering the funding gap and repaying student debt.
Federal Consolidation through NextStudent Simplifies Repayment of Student Loans
This time of year is rife with high school seniors deciding which colleges they will attend the following year. Additionally, many other students are awaiting the approach of July 1, 2007, the date when new rates for existing variable rate student loans may take effect.
Become Your Own College Funding Resource with NextStudent’s Scholarship Search Directory
There is no question that college costs are escalating beyond the ability to pay for even those of modest means without taking out student loans. New proposed student loan legislation is under consideration to lower interest rates but yet has not been enacted. In addition, individual schools from Ivy League universities to community colleges are implementing their own unique policies and programs to help students finance their college education so they avoid further debt.
NextStudent’s Commitment to Customer Education Seen in Student Loan Blog
The NextStudent Student Loan Blog celebrates its second anniversary this year, and with the recent political changes in Washington continually propelling the student loan industry to the forefront of political debate, its purpose as an excellent watchdog of student loan news and changes in federal student loan policy is more relevant than ever.
Students Spring into Funding College for New School Year
Now that spring break is a gently fading blip on college students’ radar, many students are prone to coast through the final weeks of the semester and forget about more serious considerations like planning for next year. High school seniors are in a different boat altogether, diligently working their way through their first Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). In their case, it is wise for students and their parents to monitor where they are in the college funding process and plan accordingly, according to NextStudent, the Phoenix-based premier education funding company.
The Best Home Equity Loan for You
Deciding which home equity loan is best for you depends on two things:
Do you want to receive your money in one lump sum?
What do you need to use the money for?
There are three ways to turn your home equity into usable cash:
1. Cash-Out Refinance
When you take a cash-out refinance, it means you're refinancing your existing loan to a larger amount than what you owe and taking the difference in cash. You receive your money in a lump sum and you might use the cash for home improvements or debt consolidation. If the mortgage interest rate on your existing home loan is higher than current rates, it may make sense to refinance this way.
2. Home Equity Loan
If you have a great mortgage interest rate and don't want to refinance your existing mortgage, a home equity loan might be the way to go. A home equity loan is a second loan that you take out in addition to your first mortgage . It allows you to get cash from your home equity.
A home equity loan takes less time than refinancing your first mortgage and is a good choice if you'd like your cash in a lump sum. Again, you might use this for home improvements or paying off high-interest credit card debt. You might also use it to pay medical bills or finance a second home.
ICICI, CITIBANK, CITY Financial, BAJAJ Allianz, HSBC and LOT MORE
Do you want to receive your money in one lump sum?
What do you need to use the money for?
There are three ways to turn your home equity into usable cash:
1. Cash-Out Refinance
When you take a cash-out refinance, it means you're refinancing your existing loan to a larger amount than what you owe and taking the difference in cash. You receive your money in a lump sum and you might use the cash for home improvements or debt consolidation. If the mortgage interest rate on your existing home loan is higher than current rates, it may make sense to refinance this way.
2. Home Equity Loan
If you have a great mortgage interest rate and don't want to refinance your existing mortgage, a home equity loan might be the way to go. A home equity loan is a second loan that you take out in addition to your first mortgage . It allows you to get cash from your home equity.
A home equity loan takes less time than refinancing your first mortgage and is a good choice if you'd like your cash in a lump sum. Again, you might use this for home improvements or paying off high-interest credit card debt. You might also use it to pay medical bills or finance a second home.
ICICI, CITIBANK, CITY Financial, BAJAJ Allianz, HSBC and LOT MORE
How to Find the Cheapest Whole Life Insurance Quote Online
Whole life insurance covers you for your entire life, not just for a specific period or term. Because your premium stays the same until the policy is paid for, it's important that you find the cheapest whole life insurance quote.
Look Online
The Internet is your best source for finding the cheapest whole life insurance quote. With insurance comparison websites you can complete a questionnaire about what kind of insurance you want. The websites will ask such information as:
* Your age
* How much insurance you want
* Whether you smoke
* Whether you work in a hazardous occupation
* Whether you have any risky hobbies
* Whether you have any health conditions
Once you complete the questionnaire you'll get fast quotes from multiple companies. You can then easily compare the quotes and choose the best one for you. (See link below.)
When you get your whole life insurance quotes, look for companies that offer no-load or low-load whole life insurance policies. These policies may be the cheapest choice for you because they include little or no sales commissions.
Save on Your Whole Life Insurance Quote
Because whole life insurance builds up cash value, it can be an expensive form of insurance. However, there are ways you can save on your whole life insurance:
* Check the price of several insurance amounts with the same company. Sometimes more insurance actually costs less. For example, a company might charge $1.00 per $1,000 of coverage up to $249,999, but 90 cents per $1,000 of coverage over $250,000. So it would cost less to get $250,000 worth of coverage than $245,000.
* Change your habits. If you stop smoking and lose weight, you can save up to 50% on your premiums.
* If you have a health condition, look for a whole life insurance company that specializes in people with that condition.
* Ask about hidden fees. For example, your insurer might charge you to set up an automatic payment plan.
Look Online
The Internet is your best source for finding the cheapest whole life insurance quote. With insurance comparison websites you can complete a questionnaire about what kind of insurance you want. The websites will ask such information as:
* Your age
* How much insurance you want
* Whether you smoke
* Whether you work in a hazardous occupation
* Whether you have any risky hobbies
* Whether you have any health conditions
Once you complete the questionnaire you'll get fast quotes from multiple companies. You can then easily compare the quotes and choose the best one for you. (See link below.)
When you get your whole life insurance quotes, look for companies that offer no-load or low-load whole life insurance policies. These policies may be the cheapest choice for you because they include little or no sales commissions.
Save on Your Whole Life Insurance Quote
Because whole life insurance builds up cash value, it can be an expensive form of insurance. However, there are ways you can save on your whole life insurance:
* Check the price of several insurance amounts with the same company. Sometimes more insurance actually costs less. For example, a company might charge $1.00 per $1,000 of coverage up to $249,999, but 90 cents per $1,000 of coverage over $250,000. So it would cost less to get $250,000 worth of coverage than $245,000.
* Change your habits. If you stop smoking and lose weight, you can save up to 50% on your premiums.
* If you have a health condition, look for a whole life insurance company that specializes in people with that condition.
* Ask about hidden fees. For example, your insurer might charge you to set up an automatic payment plan.
LOAN
How to Find the Cheapest Whole Life Insurance Quote Online
Whole life insurance covers you for your entire life, not just for a specific period or term. Because your premium stays the same until the policy is paid for, it's important that you find the cheapest whole life insurance quote.
Look Online
The Internet is your best source for finding the cheapest whole life insurance quote. With insurance comparison websites you can complete a questionnaire about what kind of insurance you want. The websites will ask such information as:
* Your age
* How much insurance you want
* Whether you smoke
* Whether you work in a hazardous occupation
* Whether you have any risky hobbies
* Whether you have any health conditions
Once you complete the questionnaire you'll get fast quotes from multiple companies. You can then easily compare the quotes and choose the best one for you. (See link below.)
When you get your whole life insurance quotes, look for companies that offer no-load or low-load whole life insurance policies. These policies may be the cheapest choice for you because they include little or no sales commissions.
Save on Your Whole Life Insurance Quote
Because whole life insurance builds up cash value, it can be an expensive form of insurance. However, there are ways you can save on your whole life insurance:
* Check the price of several insurance amounts with the same company. Sometimes more insurance actually costs less. For example, a company might charge $1.00 per $1,000 of coverage up to $249,999, but 90 cents per $1,000 of coverage over $250,000. So it would cost less to get $250,000 worth of coverage than $245,000.
* Change your habits. If you stop smoking and lose weight, you can save up to 50% on your premiums.
* If you have a health condition, look for a whole life insurance company that specializes in people with that condition.
* Ask about hidden fees. For example, your insurer might charge you to set up an automatic payment plan.
Whole life insurance covers you for your entire life, not just for a specific period or term. Because your premium stays the same until the policy is paid for, it's important that you find the cheapest whole life insurance quote.
Look Online
The Internet is your best source for finding the cheapest whole life insurance quote. With insurance comparison websites you can complete a questionnaire about what kind of insurance you want. The websites will ask such information as:
* Your age
* How much insurance you want
* Whether you smoke
* Whether you work in a hazardous occupation
* Whether you have any risky hobbies
* Whether you have any health conditions
Once you complete the questionnaire you'll get fast quotes from multiple companies. You can then easily compare the quotes and choose the best one for you. (See link below.)
When you get your whole life insurance quotes, look for companies that offer no-load or low-load whole life insurance policies. These policies may be the cheapest choice for you because they include little or no sales commissions.
Save on Your Whole Life Insurance Quote
Because whole life insurance builds up cash value, it can be an expensive form of insurance. However, there are ways you can save on your whole life insurance:
* Check the price of several insurance amounts with the same company. Sometimes more insurance actually costs less. For example, a company might charge $1.00 per $1,000 of coverage up to $249,999, but 90 cents per $1,000 of coverage over $250,000. So it would cost less to get $250,000 worth of coverage than $245,000.
* Change your habits. If you stop smoking and lose weight, you can save up to 50% on your premiums.
* If you have a health condition, look for a whole life insurance company that specializes in people with that condition.
* Ask about hidden fees. For example, your insurer might charge you to set up an automatic payment plan.
Principles of insurance
Commercially insurable risks typically share seven common characteristics.[1]
A large number of homogeneous exposure units. The vast majority of insurance policies are provided for individual members of very large classes. Automobile insurance, for example, covered about 175 million automobiles in the United States in 2004.[2] The existence of a large number of homogeneous exposure units allows insurers to benefit from the so-called “law of large numbers,” which in effect states that as the number of exposure units increases, the actual results are increasingly likely to become close to expected results. There are exceptions to this criterion. Lloyd's of London is famous for insuring the life or health of actors, actresses and sports figures. Satellite Launch insurance covers events that are infrequent. Large commercial property policies may insure exceptional properties for which there are no ‘homogeneous’ exposure units. Despite failing on this criterion, many exposures like these are generally considered to be insurable.
Definite Loss. The event that gives rise to the loss that is subject to insurance should, at least in principle, take place at a known time, in a known place, and from a known cause. The classic example is death of an insured on a life insurance policy. Fire, automobile accidents, and worker injuries may all easily meet this criterion. Other types of losses may only be definite in theory. Occupational disease, for instance, may involve prolonged exposure to injurious conditions where no specific time, place or cause is identifiable. Ideally, the time, place and cause of a loss should be clear enough that a reasonable person, with sufficient information, could objectively verify all three elements.
Accidental Loss. The event that constitutes the trigger of a claim should be fortuitous, or at least outside the control of the beneficiary of the insurance. The loss should be ‘pure,’ in the sense that it results from an event for which there is only the opportunity for cost. Events that contain speculative elements, such as ordinary business risks, are generally not considered insurable.
Large Loss. The size of the loss must be meaningful from the perspective of the insured. Insurance premiums need to cover both the expected cost of losses, plus the cost of issuing and administering the policy, adjusting losses, and supplying the capital needed to reasonably assure that the insurer will be able to pay claims. For small losses these latter costs may be several times the size of the expected cost of losses. There is little point in paying such costs unless the protection offered has real value to a buyer.
Affordable Premium. If the likelihood of an insured event is so high, or the cost of the event so large, that the resulting premium is large relative to the amount of protection offered, it is not likely that anyone will buy insurance, even if on offer. Further, as the accounting profession formally recognizes in financial accounting standards (See FAS 113 for example), the premium cannot be so large that there is not a reasonable chance of a significant loss to the insurer. If there is no such chance of loss, the transaction may have the form of insurance, but not the substance.
Calculable Loss. There are two elements that must be at least estimatable, if not formally calculable: the probability of loss, and the attendant cost. Probability of loss is generally an empirical exercise, while cost has more to do with the ability of a reasonable person in possession of a copy of the insurance policy and a proof of loss associated with a claim presented under that policy to make a reasonably definite and objective evaluation of the amount of the loss recoverable as a result of the claim.
Limited risk of catastrophically large losses. The essential risk is often aggregation. If the same event can cause losses to numerous policyholders of the same insurer, the ability of that insurer to issue policies becomes constrained, not by factors surrounding the individual characteristics of a given policyholder, but by the factors surrounding the sum of all policyholders so exposed. Typically, insurers prefer to limit their exposure to a loss from a single event to some small portion of their capital base, on the order of 5 percent. Where the loss can be aggregated, or an individual policy could produce exceptionally large claims, the capital constraint will restrict an insurers appetite for additional policyholders. The classic example is earthquake insurance, where the ability of an underwriter to issue a new policy depends on the number and size of the policies that it has already underwritten. Wind insurance in hurricane zones, particularly along coast lines, is another example of this phenomenon. In extreme cases, the aggregation can affect the entire industry, since the combined capital of insurers and reinsurers can be small compared to the needs of potential policyholders in areas exposed to aggregation risk. In commercial fire insurance it is possible to find single properties whose total exposed value is well in excess of any individual insurer’s capital constraint. Such properties are generally shared among several insurers, or are insured by a single insurer who syndicates the risk into the reinsurance market.
A large number of homogeneous exposure units. The vast majority of insurance policies are provided for individual members of very large classes. Automobile insurance, for example, covered about 175 million automobiles in the United States in 2004.[2] The existence of a large number of homogeneous exposure units allows insurers to benefit from the so-called “law of large numbers,” which in effect states that as the number of exposure units increases, the actual results are increasingly likely to become close to expected results. There are exceptions to this criterion. Lloyd's of London is famous for insuring the life or health of actors, actresses and sports figures. Satellite Launch insurance covers events that are infrequent. Large commercial property policies may insure exceptional properties for which there are no ‘homogeneous’ exposure units. Despite failing on this criterion, many exposures like these are generally considered to be insurable.
Definite Loss. The event that gives rise to the loss that is subject to insurance should, at least in principle, take place at a known time, in a known place, and from a known cause. The classic example is death of an insured on a life insurance policy. Fire, automobile accidents, and worker injuries may all easily meet this criterion. Other types of losses may only be definite in theory. Occupational disease, for instance, may involve prolonged exposure to injurious conditions where no specific time, place or cause is identifiable. Ideally, the time, place and cause of a loss should be clear enough that a reasonable person, with sufficient information, could objectively verify all three elements.
Accidental Loss. The event that constitutes the trigger of a claim should be fortuitous, or at least outside the control of the beneficiary of the insurance. The loss should be ‘pure,’ in the sense that it results from an event for which there is only the opportunity for cost. Events that contain speculative elements, such as ordinary business risks, are generally not considered insurable.
Large Loss. The size of the loss must be meaningful from the perspective of the insured. Insurance premiums need to cover both the expected cost of losses, plus the cost of issuing and administering the policy, adjusting losses, and supplying the capital needed to reasonably assure that the insurer will be able to pay claims. For small losses these latter costs may be several times the size of the expected cost of losses. There is little point in paying such costs unless the protection offered has real value to a buyer.
Affordable Premium. If the likelihood of an insured event is so high, or the cost of the event so large, that the resulting premium is large relative to the amount of protection offered, it is not likely that anyone will buy insurance, even if on offer. Further, as the accounting profession formally recognizes in financial accounting standards (See FAS 113 for example), the premium cannot be so large that there is not a reasonable chance of a significant loss to the insurer. If there is no such chance of loss, the transaction may have the form of insurance, but not the substance.
Calculable Loss. There are two elements that must be at least estimatable, if not formally calculable: the probability of loss, and the attendant cost. Probability of loss is generally an empirical exercise, while cost has more to do with the ability of a reasonable person in possession of a copy of the insurance policy and a proof of loss associated with a claim presented under that policy to make a reasonably definite and objective evaluation of the amount of the loss recoverable as a result of the claim.
Limited risk of catastrophically large losses. The essential risk is often aggregation. If the same event can cause losses to numerous policyholders of the same insurer, the ability of that insurer to issue policies becomes constrained, not by factors surrounding the individual characteristics of a given policyholder, but by the factors surrounding the sum of all policyholders so exposed. Typically, insurers prefer to limit their exposure to a loss from a single event to some small portion of their capital base, on the order of 5 percent. Where the loss can be aggregated, or an individual policy could produce exceptionally large claims, the capital constraint will restrict an insurers appetite for additional policyholders. The classic example is earthquake insurance, where the ability of an underwriter to issue a new policy depends on the number and size of the policies that it has already underwritten. Wind insurance in hurricane zones, particularly along coast lines, is another example of this phenomenon. In extreme cases, the aggregation can affect the entire industry, since the combined capital of insurers and reinsurers can be small compared to the needs of potential policyholders in areas exposed to aggregation risk. In commercial fire insurance it is possible to find single properties whose total exposed value is well in excess of any individual insurer’s capital constraint. Such properties are generally shared among several insurers, or are insured by a single insurer who syndicates the risk into the reinsurance market.
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